Introduction
Officially Connie is expected to recover in the hospital, where she is taken care of by a social worker. However, right from the beginning, there are also negative aspects. Connie is given strong anti-psychotic medication such as thorazine which is meant to treat psychotic disorder, for example schizophrenia, or to have people sedated. Unfortunately, this pill also has very strong side-effects. Later on, she suspects that, like many others, she is used as a guinea pig in experiments by and for the doctors (p. 136). She is expected to obey them, and she has to undergo one or possibly even more painful operations, which might also include electric shocks (p. 212f, p. 296, p. 331). All this is probably due to the facts that she is a woman, who is a stranger in America and who is coloured as well, that is, she has to suffer from both sexism and racism. It is small wonder, then, that Connie would like to escape from her prison.
First contacts with the utopian world
Introducing a stranger is a familiar device in utopian as well as in dystopian novels. As a first example one might quote the introductory chapter in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932), where the Director of the London Hatcheries gives a lecture to a number of visiting students who eagerly scribble down his words “straight from the horse's mouth into the note-book.”(2) Besides, in Ernest Callenbach's Ecotopia (1975), there is a journalist to the name of William (Will) Weston who is going to write a number of articles for the journal he is working for. Apart from this professional activity, he also writes a diary in order to preserve his personal impressions, ideas, emotions, etc. which are meant to supplement his journalistic account and which are printed in italics.(3) Moreover, Will Farnaby provides another example of a journalist who in Aldous Huxley's Island (1962) is shipwrecked and washed ashore where he is found both unconscious and helpless. During a long process of recovery he learns many things about the island, on which a lot of aspects are reminiscent of Luciente's home country.(4) Thus, concerning the structure of the novel, there are always two persons: one is the expert, and the other is the student. In this novel, then, Luciente functions as the teacher, and her partner Connie is the listener or the learner.
Ultimately, Connie serves as the writer's tool to inform the reader: thus, she becomes both the protagonist and the narrator of the novel. It remains an open question whether Connie 'really' experiences everything that is narrated about the future world or whether her time travels are based on wishful thinking only. If she really suffered from schizophrenia, fantasy activities would be far from being unusual.(5) There is one example only where Luciente calls one of Connie's tales in doubt: the latter recalls an episode where the two of them, in a fight against their enemies, have been in a burning plane (p. 326f). Here Luciente argues that the event narrated has never happened (p. 362). In this case Connie's imagination must have played a trick on her.(6)
On one occasion after an abrupt departure from Luciente, she is unsure whether her immediate experiences were a dream only, which means she has doubts concerning her own perception of reality (p. 155). Sometimes she suspects that Luciente is "a voice of an alternate self" (p. 46). And it is also true that her
new impressions in the future are mixed with memories from her past (cf. p. 181). As a consequence, the writer provides us with an example of ambivalence, which adds to the narrative complexity and sophistication of the novel, which means the reader cannot always take the text at face value. This device does not detract from Connie's personal integrity, but implies an escape from overt didacticism. Anyway, there are two levels of action in Woman on the Edge of Time which are separated by a considerable period of time but which nevertheless are closely intertwined. Eventually Connie's situation becomes more and more dramatic whereas the description of utopia decreases in intensity. It will be shown below that life in 2137 deals successfully with many problems surrounding Nature and its environment.
“Becoming partners with water, air, birds, fish, trees ...” (p. 117)
At one occasion Luciente complains of the fact that in the past all the fossil fuels were burned up (p. 59). Elsewhere she draws attention to the fact that in Connie's time thousands of species were disappearing (p. 268). It is well known that the loss of biodiversity has become a keyword in the discussion of climate change in our time.(7) The behavior displayed by Luciente's contemporaries is absolutely different. Rather than that, her people use "rainwater-holding and solar energy" (p. 61; cf. p. 141). It goes without saying that even nowadays this attitude is quite topical, too: in today's discussion of the climate crisis, many people, like Luciente's friends, insist on the fact that fossil fuels should be replaced by the use of renewable energies, namely solar energy, wind power, hydropower, etc.(8) To quote Luciente once again: "We have limited resources. We plan cooperatively. We can afford to waste … nothing. […] Our – you'd say religion?- ideas make us see ourselves as partners with water, air, birds, fish, trees“ (p. 117). And she adds: "We put a lot of work into feeding everybody without destroying the soil, keeping up its health and fertility" (p. 121).(9) They regarded Nature as something living in which they talked to cats, dogs, hamsters (p. 89) and they also used sign language in order to communicate with a lot of mammals (p. 91). And the utopian people had an official Earth Advocate who spoke for the rights of the total environment (p. 144). All this leads to a positive evaluation of themselves: “The gift is in growing to care, to connect, to cooperate. Everything we learn aims to make us feel strong in ourselves, connected to all living” (p. 243).
Obviously, these statements about Nature are quite the opposite of what is said in the Bible and what has been representative of Christian doctrine for centuries: “Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground.” (Genesis, 1,26-28). It should be pointed out, however, that the present Pope St. Francis, in his first environmental encyclical published in 2015, pleaded for a completely new interpretation of this biblical passage. According to his view, Nature consists of animals and plants, of animate and inanimate things, and accordingly, man himself is not only part of God's creation but also responsible for it.(10) To conclude: in this sense, the utopians regard themselves as an ecologically sound part of Nature: they take care of producing sufficient food without exploitation of the soil. By using alternative energy sources they practice principles which are in accordance with a modern view of Christianity and which are put forward by modern climate change fighters. The utopians, then, are engaged in a struggle for an ecological order, and in doing this they have to be permanently engaged in communicative activities so that they can train each other in self-control. But they are also very much interested to learn about Connie's life, and Luciente as well as her friend Jackrabbit help and encourage Connie to go on fighting against the doctors' unjustified treatment of her (p. 119, p. 225, p. 243, p. 256).
However, there is further evidence that the Utopians make a creative and conscientious use of Nature. They use single-celled creatures to produce fences and barriers which mend themselves (p. 141). They have certain garments to be worn during festivals which are made of algae and decorated by natural dyes (p. 163). Again the scientific analysis of algae is most topical today: they serve to produce food and energy, but in the future world they are also meant to replace plastic which forms a universal threat since it becomes, in the oceans of the world for example, part of the food chain, and, consequently, it may do a lot of harm to animals and humans alike. It seems fantastic to me that such a suggestion was made as early as 1976, that is almost half a century ago. Undoubtedly, it is evidence of the writer's wide range of imagination.
When Connie made her appearance in the future for the first time, her impression was that a fall-off had taken place (p. 117). She soon realized, however, that she had come to an agrarian society in which the two crucial problems of food and energy production had been solved. But she also learned rather quickly that there existed manufacturing and mining factories which were run by mechanical machines and controlled by men (p. 121): these prevented men from having to work under conditions hardly bearable (p. 122). And there are very few hints to the factories' causing any pollution (p. 270). There is more evidence to the fact that the civilization of 2137 has a high technological standard (p. 125). For example, everybody wears a device round their arm which, as people's personal memory, serves to communicate with other people but which is also endowed with the whole of human knowledge. Thus it is a combination of a telephone and an encyclopedia: it is like a modern cellphone (in German usually called "smartphone") with access to the internet, which has got the German sounding (and possibly speaking) name “kenner” (p. 50 and p. 56). The utopians, then, have a very high level in digital technology. Again in the early 1970s this was a prophetic vision considering the fact that in those days the computers were in their very infancy and the internet had not yet been invented at all.
A Steady Population (No overpopulation)
The state of affairs in Piercy's utopia has to be accounted for by its specific context. In addition, there are many parallels between Brave New World (chapter 1) and Woman on the Edge of Time. In both novels, there was artificial insemination (cf. test tube babies), the genetic materials, rather than being naturally developed, were bred and stored as embryos in incubators or “brooders” (p. 93), from which they were finally decanted or released respectively (cf. p. 317). In Piercy's work, the brooders are supplemented by machines which give life to the babies so that there are no mothers to lose blood and to bear pains any longer (p. 96). In Woman on the Edge of Time an embryo is 'released' by a 'birther' immediately after some person's death in the community (p. 154) so that there is a perfect balance between the death rate and the birth rate. For the women of Piercy's utopia, this liberation of biological duties has been regarded as important progress and has been celebrated as a decisive step of emancipation.
From the very beginning Connie opposes this view (p. 98), which in her mind excludes an appropriate understanding of motherhood, which is connected with her view of man in general. There is a similar problem in Huxleys Brave New World, as there is a final debate between John the Savage and the world controller Mustapha Mond:
Connie accepts the traditional idea of maternity even if it implies pains and tears: in this respect she would perfectly agree with John the Savage who opposes Mond's limited intellectual view of human life. As Marge Piercy told the British newspaper The Guardian on the occasion of a new edition of her novel, her original intention was to introduce a minority of women who were for the traditional idea of maternity: “Probably the most controversial part of Mattapoisett is the brooder (technology that allows babies to be born without pregnancy) as many women felt they would be unwilling to give up birthing. If I had the book to write over again, I would include a group that chose to give birth live. In my original notes, I intended to, but during the long and complicated writing of the book, I never did put it in.”(15) Perhaps, in retrospective view, a one 100 % consensus of women seemed to be too excessive a standpoint, and maybe a modified portrayal of maternity was at least temporarily more attractive to her. However, it remained a theoretical concession only. For Connie it would have meant some support for her conviction. Anyway, she is shown as a character who undergoes quite a long development, but who is an independently thinking person as well. Thus it is not surprising that she has a strong confidence in her intuitive insights concerning basic principles of human life. For her, suffering as for John the Savage, is an integral part of humanity. This concept also adds to the quality of the novel as a whole because it does not aim at an idealization of the future: the writer successfully avoids a coherent delineation in black and white.
There is at least another debatable aspect in the utopian world. In general, there exist very few laws in it, probably because there are very few crimes committed, for example theft, assault, murder … (p. 201f). For example, if somebody steals something, there is a debate between the victim, the thief and a judge. Their task is to find the cause of the crime and an appropriate punishment for it so as to avoid its possible repetition. If the criminal, however, misses his second chance and gets caught, he will be executed (p. 202). Such a severe punishment looks somewhat arbitrary: the few outsiders in the utopian society who form the minority, are easily done away with by the well-educated majority. A more differentiated regulation would not only be preferable to the individual, but it would also add to the value of the utopian world in general. To conclude, one may say that this future world is ideal in many, but not in all respects.
Birth and Education in Woman on the Edge of Time
In their early periods of life, in the future of 2137, children experience an enormous space of personal freedom which should function as a tool to socialize them, i.e. to make them internalize accepted behavioural patterns. On the one hand, children do not have to go to school if they do not want to. On the other hand, they could be studying as long as they wanted to (p. 228): the utopians believed in the necessity of life-long learning anyway (p. 123). There were no boundaries between children and adults as they shared both their knowledge and their lack of it (p. 124).
Before the adolescents become adults, however, they have to undergo a process of initiation. They are left in a desert where they have to take care of themselves for a week, which always involves some risks. Therefore they are allowed to choose the point of time, when they feel strong and mature enough to face such a situation (p. 107). This also means that maternal care comes to an end, which is reflected in the fact that the adolescents are allowed to choose an appropriate name for themselves (p. 107). Their education is based on individuality, motivation and cooperation, and the young learn a deep respect towards Nature.
These aims will remain also relevant for adult people in Woman on the Edge of Time, because all major projects are based on democratic votes (p. 271). In the utopian state there is a diversity of mixed races (p. 96). While Luciente and her people are Wamponaug Indians, Connie's ancestors are indigenous Mayas (p. 92). And there is equality between the races and the sexes; thus there is neither racism nor sexism (p. 92 and p. 97). Rather than that, all citizens share equal rights. But all of them also have to fight against their enemies at the frontiers (p. 179f), who mostly use robots, androids, cybernauts or partially automated humans (p. 93, p. 261).
Education in Brave New World is just the opposite in every respect. Its so-called scientific approach is completely organized by the state: it consists of genetic engineering, social predestination, conditioning and manipulation by hypnopaedia, that is, sleep teaching. Thus children are prevented from developing in a personal way: they neither have a free will, nor a sense of guilt, nor a system of morality in general. Metaphorically speaking, they live in bottles. And all people learn that Nature is inimical to men: in Brave New World the society was systematically trained to fear and to hate "wild nature“ (p. 22f).(17) The contrast concerning the concept of man in the two novels could not be any sharper.
Conclusion
But there is also hope concerning the political situation that there will be no more wars and no more social differences. Apart from the relationship between the utopians and their enemies, there are hardly any examples of Them – Us confrontations in the utopian world. But there exist more examples in Connie's reality: Americans – strangers, white people and coloured (black – brown) people, men and women, the learned doctors and the inferior weak persons in the psychiatric hospital, etc. It was Dana Sawyer, who thus elaborates on the social and political dimension of the problem: “We generally see the political and economic world as divided into a contest between “us” and “them”. We believe that we best survive and thrive, as a society and as a nation, by watching out for our own interests. Accordingly, we should not only protect ourselves from other societies but, when necessary (and it is often necessary) exploit them. […] And as one consequence of this, we are often content to let our neighbors suffer as long as we can avoid suffering ourselves – an attitude that implies 'we' are not 'them'. 'We' are of that special class of people who matter most, and, unfortunately, we must sometimes do things to those other people (the ones who do not count), if it will benefit 'us'."(19)
For Connie it is decisive not to give up hope, she is supported in her struggle by her friend Luciente several times to continue fighting against the forces that suppress her. She realizes more than once that she is at war (p. 331 and p. 355). Even if she has no chance of succeeding, she can preserve her self-respect this way, which again is reminiscent of One Flew Over the Cuckoos's Nest. It must be admitted that in the end the protagonist's McMurphy's personality was destroyed by severe electric shocks. Nevertheless, before this treatment took place, he had already become a role model for other patients: he paved the way for his friend Chief Bromden to escape and to find his personal freedom outside the prison.(20)
If such differences and animosities and conflicts are overcome, all human beings will be equal, which would also be extremely beneficial for protecting Nature and would contribute to the survival of mankind.(21)
NOTES
(2) Brave New World (Stuttgart: Klett, 2007), p. 8.
(3) Ernest Callenbach, Ecotopia. The Notebook and Reports of William Weston (1975). Stuttgart: Reclam, 1996.
(4) With an Introduction by David Bradshaw, London: Flamingo, 1994.
(5) But it is also true that at the period of the events narrated, the idea of fighting seems to be omnipresent in Connie's thinking. For example she tells Luciente: “It was you, your people, who taught me I'm fighting a war” (p. 365). Cf. also p. 335, p. 344, p. 357, p. 359, p. 370. Thus Connie's tale may be understood as a dream originating in Freudian influence.
(6) Cf. Vonnegut's Billy Pilgrim in his famous anti-war novel Slaughterhouse Five (1969); for him modern life has become unbearable to such an extent that schizophrenia for him serves as an instrument of escape and survival. Cf. also the Scottish psyciatrist R. D. Laing, who describes schizophrenia as "a special strategy that a person invents in order to live in an unlivable situation": The Politics of Experience (New York, 1967), p. 115.
(7) Cf. Dirk Steffens/Franz Haberkuss, Über Leben. Zukunftsfrage Artensterben: Wie wir die Ökokrise überwinden. (München: 5. Auflage, Penguin, 2020), p. 97 and pp. 104ff.
(8) Ernest Callenbach develops a similar position, when his protagonist pleads for the use of "pollution-free sources of energy", namely "solar energy, earth heat, tides, and wind", Ecotopia, p. 216 and p. 219; cf. p. 270f: "Active research also continues on additional ways of harnessing solar, wind and tidal power."
(9) Cf. also the last paragraph of the same page: “We have so much energy from the sun, so much from the wind, so much from decomposing wastes, so much from the waves, so much from the river ...”
(10) Cf. Wikipedia, s.v. Dominium terrae.
Cf. also the comment to be found in Weizsäcker, Ernst Ulrich von und Anders Wijkman, Wir sind dran. Was wir ändern müssen, wenn wir bleiben wollen (Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2018), p. 124.
(11): “The Politics of Ecology”, Aldous Huxley Annual 19 (2019), p. 116.
(12) (London, Chatto & Windus, 1959), p. 21.
(13) Dana Sawyer, "'Brave New World View': Aldous Huxley, Environmental Prophet“, Aldous Huxley Annual 8 (2008), p. 237.
(14) Stuttgart: (Klett, 2007), p. 207.
(15) Cf. the writer's view on traditional maternity in "https://www.the guardian.com./books/2016/nove/29"
(16) In some way this is reminiscent of Huxley's "Mutual Adoptions Clubs" as they are presented in his last novel Island, p. 98.
(17) Cf. Dana Sawyer, Aldous Huxley Annual 8 (2008) p. 230.
(18) This well-known concept goes back to the American depression in the 1930s, when it was used to produce short-lived articles with the aim of increasing consumption and economic productivity; it is small wonder, then, that the concept can also be found in Huxley's Island (p. 164). Today such complaints particularly referring to electrical and digital products are legion. For a recent comment cf. also Michael Kopatz, Ökoroutine (Wuppertal: oecom Verlag, 2. Auflage, 2017), p. 162.
(19) Dana Sawyer, Aldous Huxley Annual 8 (2008), p. 233.
(20) One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (New York: Signet, 1962), p. 271f.
(21) When Woman on the Edge of Time is read in class, apart from analysing the environmental endeavours in the utopian state, there may be two additional focuses of attention, namely the patients' treatment in the psychiatric hospitals as well as racism and sexism in Piercy's novel.
|