The novel Ecotopia by Ernest Callenbach, which was published in 1975, first became known as a utopian novel which dealt with the emancipation of women. Astonishingly enough, its male writer depicted a society in which women were superior to men and in which, as a result of a democratic election, they became the leaders of their country. They initiated a reform, in which they rejected the idea of progress and the further industrialization of society, in which they neither used nuclear power nor innovative branches of science like gene technology any longer. And as to medical care, they tried to make the hospitals the best places there could be. Besides, they emphasized the significance of social activities, paid a deep respect to Nature, kept consumption low and put a great emphasis on clean air and water so that people lived in sound surroundings. During the last few years this reform of society gained additional importance as it anticipated many arguments of today's climate activists. Like Marge Piercy's Woman on the Edge of Time (1976) Callenbach's work may be seen as a precursor of the present fight against the global warming of our planet.

Ernest Callenbach's Ecotopia as an Ecological Novel (1975) Willi Real

Like The Handmaid's Tale, Ecotopia is located on the territory of former parts of the USA, which is geographically placed close to the following federal states: Northern California, Oregon and the North West of Washington, from which the new country seceded. Of course, this is reminiscent of the historical secession of the 13 Southern states in the nineteenth century, which gave rise to the Civil War from 1861 – 1865 and which, among others things, ultimately led to an abolition of slavery. In the context of Callenbach's fictional state, immediately after proclaiming independence from the USA, there was a war with them, in which particular rockets possessed a high priority (p. 240). Fortunately for the Ecotopians, the United States underestimated their enemy, and thus they were defeated in the so-called helicopter war (p. 253). After two decades of independence (p. 5), for Ecotopia, the segregation from the United States has become irreversible since these are still interested in following traditional lines, that is, in promoting the industrialization of their country. As a consequence, there is no justified hope for reunification with Ecotopia: this is nothing but an unrealistic idea (p. 307). There exists, then, a strong contrast between the USA and the new utopian society, namely one between the process of continuing industrialization and an alternative development based on some innovative principles for the future. This tendency is already indicated by the newly coined term of the title, which alludes to the terms “ecological” and “utopia”.

The reader is informed about this new state of affairs from the perspective of a United States journalist to the name of William West, who reports about his experiences for an American journal in the first place (p. 5). But he also writes down his impressions in a diary, in which his report usually is of a much more personal nature. Again this is a familiar pattern: the events are presented from the perspective of a stranger or from that of a group of visitors. Thus on the very first page of Aldous Huxley's last novel Island, the reader learns about Will Farnaby: “Lying there like a corpse in the dead leaves, his hair matted, his face grotesquely smudged and bruised, his clothes in rags and muddy, Will Farnaby awoke with a start"(2). This implies that the protagonist of this novel is shipwrecked. Or one might also quote the behavior of the students in the first chapter of the same writer's dystopia Brave New World listening to the Director of the London Hatchery: “Each of them carried a note-book, in which, whenever the great man spoke, he desperately scribbled. Straight from the horse's mouth”(3). Undoubtedly, this is a successful device in order to catch the readers' attention.

During the war between the USA and Ecotopia, the technological standard must have been very high since the use of particular rockets was decisive in fighting: similar to cruise missiles they were able to 'correct' their course very briefly before their targets and their subsequent 'successful' explosion. Later on, in the society developed by Callenbach, the idea of progress has been abandoned (p. 71). Rather than that, life is characterized by a conservative backlash, which results in a regression of society (p. 66). In terms of literary history, this means that people's minds were returning to the enthusiastic 19th century attitude towards Nature as represented by writers of the Romantic period such as Nathaniel Hawthorne or Edgar Allan Poe, or by such transcendentalists as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau for example. During this period, for the first time in American literary history, Nature was considered as a source of recreation in order to counterbalance the increasingly hectic (business) life(5).

For the routine of daily life, this means that technology is paid little respect to. The Ecotopian attitude may be illustrated by the facts that cars have been abolished (p. 33) and flights over their country have been prohibited (p. 15). Generally speaking, traveling is extremely limited. In Ecotopia, the major means of transport to cover large distances is the railway (p. 303). Electrical cars, battery-driven autonomous buses (p. 28), and bicycles are public property (p. 32): it is them which determine the traffic in the small cities. Obviously the Ecotopians have put some principles of an ecological traffic turn into practice.

In Eotopia, there are no street lights in towns, but even without them, very few crimes occur (p. 37). If they do happen nevertheless, as a rule, people are put into prison (p. 211). In there, however, law enforcement is generally very mild (p. 212), with one exception: pollution of air and water are punished by severe jail sentences (p. 183). This shows that any deviation from their environmental endeavors is like crossing a red line which is not being tolerated(6).

Of course, the female - male relationships in Ecotopia also concern sexuality, which, rather than being subject to very rigid rules, is thus characterized by Callenbach: “They seem to regard sex the same way we'd regard eating or maybe walking – a pleasant biological function, but without any heavy emotional expectations. Very relaxing …” (p. 190) This justifies a kind of sexual permissiveness, which, at least on four holidays each year, is widespread (p. 142f). The concept as such goes back to Aldous Huxley's famous dystopia Brave New World (1931), where sex is permanently free and for which the writer made use of the term promiscuity (p. 43), which is considered as a social duty for every utopian citizen (p. 41). This concept has an obvious advantage or a very welcome side effect. If sexual urges are easily and regularly satisfied, the abuse of women or children is never thought of as a problem. At least, in Brave New World, there are no mothers worrying about any possible attacks against themselves or their children, which is not surprising considering the fact that their education has been taken over by the state.

In a utopia by the British writer Maggie Gee, there exist "successful inventions", the Doves which are humanoid robots and which are metaphorically called "the Wings of a Brave New World(8). The title The Ice People is a significant description of human relationships, which is thus illustrated by the male narrator: “Men were terminally lonely. We froze into ourselves, we accepted the ice” (p. 302). In Gee's novel, there is an organized group of women called the Wicca World Movement who came into power by winning an election in which only 10-12 % of people participated (p. 136f). These organized women believed that men and women were doomed to fight one another (p. 122). Therefore they did no longer want to have sex with men, and consequently they lived apart from each other (p. 153). In order to compensate their frustration and in order to satisfy their sexual desires, men used to copulate with the Doves mentioned above: “They were our pets, our kids – our wives. Their docility, their friendliness, the way they served us and seemed to like us, the way they quietly accepted love, whereas women had rejected us ... " (p. 152f). In order to survive it becomes necessary for humans to use artificial insemination more and more frequently, which is referred to as “techfix births” in Gee's work (p. 53, p. 73). She also maintains that children make their own laws so that they have become “wild” and civil order has broken down (p. 228, p. 287, p. 309). This concept, then, is just the opposite from the superficial stability of society as it is described in Huxley's Brave New World. To come back to Callenbach's work, it is also the case that men have to agree to female desires: “No Ecotopian woman ever bears a child by a man she has not freely chosen” (p. 141). In other words: it is the women who select the fathers of their children, and it is also them who are responsible for the children's education during the first two years (p. 141). With this caveat, no bad feelings arise because of sexual affairs. And it is absolutely no offense when sex happens in public (p. 69).

Moreover, trees are believed to resemble human beings very closely: ”Certainly Ecotopians regard trees as being alive in almost a human sense” (p. 127), and consequently they are highly respected: “The true love of the Ecotopians is their forests, which they tend with so much care and manage in the prescribed stable-state manner. There they can claim much success in their campaign to transform Nature to a natural condition” (p. 129). Elsewhere in the text it is stated by way of a metaphor that people in Ecotopia feel connected to all living, that is not only to fellow creatures, but also to the non-human environment of plants and animals: “Humans were meant to take their modest place in a seamless, stable-state web of living organisms, disturbing that web as little as possible (p. 98). Once again this is a very topical aspect in the context of the struggle for overcoming the present climate change crisis.

For centuries human beings have made use of natural resources to such a degree that they were almost exhausted by the middle or the end of the twentieth century. Men have acted like parasites: In his novel Ape and Essence (1948), Aldous Huxley maintains: “The distinguishing mark of parasitism … is that one organism lives at the expense of another. In the end this one-sided relationship proves fatal to both parties; for the death of the host cannot but result in the death of the parasite by which it has been killed” (cf. p. 129). Human beings, then, have exploited Nature for their own good without paying any respect to members of other peoples or giving any consideration to posterity. In Ecotopia, there is an attitude fundamentally different.

First of all, the contemporary generation of that time claims to feel responsible for Nature, and this implies much more than paying lip service to a popular attitude. If the people of Ecotopia believe in the similarity of human beings and trees, they imply that Nature is full of life, communication and co-operation. This is a line of thought which has gained in significance with our generation. For example, it may be found in the Irish writer Colum McCann's latest novel entitled Apeiron, which was published in 2020 only. In this ambitious work he maintains: “Trees can warn each other of approaching swarms of insects"(10). It is understood that such insects are dangerous for them, and that trees overcome communication barriers in order to survive.

What is more: today people have realized that trees do not only fight for their own survival, but that they also try to protect plants against animals which may turn out to be hostile towards them or which constitute a threat to other species. Therefore it is sensible not to regard trees in isolation, not to think of them as individual forms of life but to see their function in the context of Nature as a whole. Human beings, then, should realize that there are many connections with other natural phenomena. As a consequence, individual trees or forests should be preserved in order to maintain biodiversity(11), which would also contribute to overcoming the increasing global warming of our planet. Such ideas have become the subject of a fascinating novel only recently published, namely Richard Powers's The Overstory (2020). Thus a new, more differentiated study of Nature has been ushered in, which also implies an attitude much more detailed and differentiated towards it(12).

In Piercy's vision, there is a so-called “steady population” (p. 66), that is, there is a perfect balance of births and deaths(14), and in Ecotopia the differences between these vary but slightly. This is achieved by a plan which helped people to escape the problem of overpopulation: “This program reduced the number of births to a few tenths of a percent below the number of deaths” (p. 135). This means that for the first time there is a reduction in population from some 15 to about 14 million (p. 138). In Ecotopia nuclear power is used but temporarily: during this phase of transition particular precautions are taken so as to prevent any further nuclear explosions (p. 217) which might extinguish mankind. It seems that people have learned their lesson from former catastrophes. At least the problem of overpopulation, which is a very frequent burden in utopian states”(15), does not come up any longer.

The principle of recycling is supplemented by other sensible ecological patterns. For instance, Ecotopians do a lot of things in order to reduce consumption so as to keep it very low: they "repair their own things" (p. 91), and "they replace defective components" (p. 93). That is, they sacrifice present consumption in order "to ensure future survival" (p. 98). In other words: rather than a conscription of consumption, as it is proclaimed in Huxley's Brave New World (p. 48), an economical use of products is recommended in order to keep consumption as low as possible. This is a system which might serve as a model even for today's consumers. Nowadays in many countries all over the world, there is also a tendency to meet in so-called 'repair-cafés'. Such people show they are no members of throwaway societies. By repairing things on their own they do not only save money but at the same time they make an ecological contribution to sustainability, too. That is, they oppose reckless behavior because they believe that they are only guests on this planet which they have borrowed from their own children.

Additionally, in Callenbach's novel, animal manure is used rather than chemical fertilizers (p. 42). Animals which are kept on farms enjoy living conditions as natural as possible (p. 43). This procedure implies that in Ecotopia, there are very favorable circumstances for plentiful food supply (p. 48, p. 312). In constructing places for accommodation, people are also very considerate concerning the possible consequences for Nature. The most important building material is provided by wood (p. 57), and therefore large reforestation programs are employed in order to preserve and protect the forests (p. 121, p. 263f). What is more important is that people replace the wood they are going to consume (p. 123). By “planting trees … setting in motion the new growth” they undergo a decisive learning process by which "a better attitude toward lumber resources" is developed (p. 114). Human beings and trees, then, are close to becoming partners: they [people] seemed almost to be collaborating with the wood” (p. 107). Elsewhere the journalist William West speaks of the “almost religious respect they extend to wood structures” (p. 263f, p. 123).
In Ecotopia wood is used in order to construct houses out of it: prefabricated elements are joined to form convenient places for accommodation. This is done for reasons of flexibility: the possibilities of accommodation may be enlarged or reduced as necessity arises in case of births or deaths. Anyway people are expected to act in accordance with their psychological and ecological principles, which may be derived from their own experiences.

First of all, in the Ecotopian school system, there are no computers and very few electronic teaching aids to be found (p. 243), so digital learning cannot be made use of. This directly results from the overall importance put upon biology: classes often take place in the open air, where many projects are carried through which are based on practical work (p. 246). Schools which exist nevertheless are private institutions which are owned by the teachers (p. 249)(16). On the whole, this school system may be considered as somewhat obsolete or even one-sided. It must be admitted, though, that "the Ecotopian schools seem to be doing a good job of preparing their children for Ecotopian life" (p. 252).

Besides the question arises whether the focus on biology and Nature is not unduly emphasized since overemphasis on certain aspects may entail decline, damage or loss of other aspects which may be detrimental to society as a whole. It has been shown above that modern approaches to human life, such as cloning or gene technology are not being studied. But due to the high rank of biology, other traditional disciplines such as political science, sociology and psychology are neglected (p. 271). In the journalist's words: "there is still a strong trend in Ecotopia to abandon the fruits of all modern technology" (p. 169). And the readers do not learn anything about the study of medicine: thus the Ecotopians stick to a standard for medical care which was valid fifty years ago. To conclude: the system of the sciences in Ecotopia is a one-sided rather than a well-balanced one.

Thirdly, it has been shown above that after segregation the war between Ecotopia and the USA was decided by high-technology inventions. Obviously, the possibility of military conflicts still exists in the Ecotopians' consciousness: in any case the male beings celebrate yearly war games where, as a military training and as a means of acting out their aggressiveness, many face-to-face duels are fought until one of the opponents is severely injured. On one occasion, the visitor to Ecotopia, William Weston himself takes part in such a fight. When he is defeated, he is given careful intensive care in a hospital until he is well again (p. 289f). In the light of high-technology warfare, these games do no longer fulfill a relevant function: real wars can no longer be decided by the physical strength of the individual soldiers. Even if such games may be very popular, they seem to be antiquated as well.

Fourthly and lastly, it is surprising how little attention is given to the Fine Arts. In Ecotopia music, poetry, novels and films are frequently exported and they do concern the minority of the Blacks only (p. 210). The Fine Arts, then, of which music is said to be the most important one (p. 281), are cultivated by a rather small number of human beings who “themselves seceded within Ecotopia” (p. 313) from the others. Under such circumstances, of course, the arts earn little respect only. And the members of the different races, namely the white majority and the black minority, do not live in harmony with each other (p. 214). Apart from that “most disheartening development” (p. 214), however, the reader is not informed about the attitude of the mainstream people and the outsiders towards each other. Within the majority of society, this means that social interaction plays a more significant role than cultural life or religious tenets. This implies that civilization fulfills a more significant function than culture.

Basically, Callenbach's novel is certainly very imaginative: it offers a list of stimulating experiences, but there are hardly any causally linked events, and these do not form an extremely coherent whole. The reader is therefore asked to concentrate on the ecological character of the novel and to share the writer's attitude towards Nature. And it should be borne in mind that the novel under consideration appeared almost fifty years ago. Considering this fact it is quite an achievement to describe the use of alternative energies and their environmental consequences in such a detailed way. Many aspects in this novel are more topical than ever, and therefore it is well worth reading even today. If there exists a problem on earth which has a huge potential for human agreement, it is global warming caused by CO2 emissions. While I am writing these lines (during the month of April 2021), the USA, with their new President Joe Biden, and the European Union plead for more ambitious climate aims. If, within the next few years, Russia and above all China were willing to participate in a new global program for the benefit of our climate, there would still be a large degree of hope both sensible and well-founded for the survival of mankind as a whole.

(2) Aldous Huxley, Island (1961), with an introduction by David Bradshaw (London: Flamingo, 1994), p. 1. In the following page references will be given in brackets.

(3) Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (1931), (Stuttgart: Klett, 2007) p. 8.

(4) Cf. Marge Piercy, in her utopia Woman on the Edge of Time (1975), (New York: Fawcett, 1976), p. 120f: in this novel, the writer describes people's peaceful way of life in 2137. They live in small villages of an agrarian society. As a rule, they share their meals and on such occasions, like people in Ecotopia, they are touching, hugging and caressing each other constantly (p. 68).

(5) Cf. Sylvia Mayer, Naturethik und Neuengland-Regionalliteratur (Heidelberg: Winter, 2004). Chapter 2 of this monograph deals with American environmental history of the 19th century (cf. pp.39ff).

(6) In Marge Piercy's Woman on the Edge of Time, any offender of the law has to take part in a discussion between the victim, a judge and himself, and after that the criminal is given a second chance. If that does not help, s/he is usually executed (p. 201f). Thus being a thief twice may entail death punishment. This is a procedure rather exaggerated or even unjust, however, the legal system of the future society is not delineated in detail.

(7) In Aldous Huxley's Island children are usually not raised in families, but in the so-called mutual adoption clubs; cf. p. 98. In Maggie Gee's The Ice People (London: Telegram, 1998), p. 15 the following pun is to be found: 'Now there were more and more male nannies ... They call them "mannies", instead of nannies. Mannies, I ask you! It's ...humiliating (p. 69).

(8) Maggie Gee's utopian vision, then, is very pessimistic. It is doubtful if for her mankind has any future at all. Since parents and children, too, live separately from each other and young people make their own laws, society is in a clear process of decay. The writer also points out that fear is a source of power which was exploited by the World Wicca Movement: „Fear began to tear people apart“ (p. 150).

(9) This thesis may also be found in Dirk Steffens/Franz Haberkuss, Über Leben. Zukunftsfrage Artensterben: Wie wir die Ökokrise überwinden. München: 5. Auflage, Penguin, 2020. While I was working on this article, another study was published by the well-known bestseller author Frank Schätzing: Was, wenn wir einfach die Welt retten? Handeln in der Klimakrise . Köln: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2021 (published on 15 April 2021), p. 78.

(10) Colum McCann's, Apeiron (New York: Random House, 2020), p. 325.

(11) Again the study quoted above by Dirk Steffens/Franz Haberkuss may be recommended in this context; cf. note 9.

(12) Vgl. Peter Wohlleben, Das geheime Leben der Bäume. Was sie fühlen, wie sie kommunizieren – die Entdeckung einer verborgenen Welt. München: Ludwig Verlag; 2015. Wohlleben's books and articles are now reaching millions of readers, because they are very often published in popular journals. There are a lot of advertisements of them in mass media, too. There are also other modern climate activists who want the exploitation of nature to be stopped: Cf. Luisa Neubauer/Alexander Repenning: Vom Ende der Klimakrise (Stuttgart: 2019), p. 256. This standpoint is also reminiscent of Aldous Huxley's metaphor of parasitism: Cf. Ape and Essence , p. 129.

(13) In Marge Piercy's Woman on the Edge of Time, algae are also used to make garments (p. 163).

(14) Cf.Willi Real,"Marge Piercy, Woman on the Edge of Time : an Ecological Novel" (1976).

(15) Cf. Willi Real, "Aldous Huxley's Ecological Ideas in Ape and Essence". Huxley was concerned about the dangers of overpopulation during all of his life. In his late essay Brave New World Revisited (1958), he states the problem very clearly (London: Chatto & Windus, 1966), p. 21: “Overpopulation leads to economic insecurity and social unrest. Unrest and insecurity lead to more control by central governments an increase of their power.” As Huxley's critic Dana Sawyer puts the dilemma 50 years later: “As populations increase, resources dwindle. [...] These conflicts create social and political chaos.” Cf. 'Brave New World View': Aldous Huxley, Environmental Prophet“, Aldous Huxley Annual 8 (2008), p. 237.

(16) In contrast to the utopian society presented in Piercy's Woman on the Edge of Time, in Ecotopia, school attendance is obligatory (p. 251).